Effect of Structural Pounding During Seismic Events

Effect of Structural Pounding During Seismic Events Abstract This project entitled aims at the investigation of the effect of structural pounding to the dynamic response of structures subject to strong ground motions. In many cases structural pounding during earthquake may result in considerable and incalculable damages. It usually need to be accounted for in the case of adjacent structures, bridges, base isolated buildings, industrial and port facilities, and in ground pipelines. The phenomenon of that impact force pounding has been noted by researchers and engineers over the past several decades. As we see through dull historical strokes and performance, in different investigations of past and recent earthquakes damage have illustrated several cases of pounding damage such as those that have occurred in the Imperial Valley (May 18, 1940), the Sequenay earthquake in Canada (1988), Kasai Maison (1991), the Cairo earthquake (1992), the Northridge earthquake (1994), California (1994), Kobe, Japan (1995) Turkey (1999), Taiwan (1999) and Bhuj, Ce ntral Western India (2001). Some of the most memorable seismic events were in the 1972 Managua earthquake, when the five-storey Grant Hotel suffered a complete collapse, also in the 1964 Alaska earthquake, the 14-storey Anchorage Westwood hotel pounded against its low rise ballroom and the most recently extent of pounding in Mexico City in 1985 confirmed this as a major problem. Those all evidences have continued to illustrate the annihilation of earthquakes, with devastation of engineered in both buildings and bridges structures. Amongst the feasible structural destructions, seismic produced pounding has been frequently distinguished in numerous earthquakes, as a result this phenomenon plays a key role to the structures. As engineers, we have a responsibility to prevent it or take the necessary steps to mitigate it for the future constructions by considering the properties that affect and led pounding to occur. In order to examine the effect of the various parameters associated wit h pounding forces on the dynamic response of a seismically excited structure, a number of simulations and parametric studies have been performed, using SAP2000. By more precise investigations that have been done from professional earthquake investigators and engineers pounding produces acceleration and shear at various story levels. Also, significantly depends on the gap size between superstructure segments, which we will examine later on in the project. The main aim of the project is to conduct a detailed investigation on pounding-involved response structure during a seismic event as well as observed the structural behaviour as the result of ground motion excitation by examine the properties that affect pounding and determine the solutions and the mitigations that we have to take into account before we construct a structure in order to avoid future disasters. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Seismic Pounding effect (Overview) Looking throughout the time, investigations and observations of the effects of historical earthquakes have demonstrated that many structures are susceptible to significant damage which may lead to collapse. Numerous devastating earthquakes have hit various seismically active regions. Some investigations that have been followed after those seismic events are distinguished fact providing that, an earthquake within the range of six is capable of creating and generating incalculable and irreversible damages, of both buildings and bridges. Those seismic losses have further consequences, most likely to present economical problem to the community hit. The main target of most seismic excitations are, the primary frequencies of rigid buildings between the ranges of low to medium height, resulting by this in significant accumulations of soil acceleration. Also, addition to this is the causing the presence of the inevitable enduring seismic loads in engineered structures, creating inflexible re sponses. In recent years it becomes more urgent need to minimize seismic damage not only to avoid structures failures but especially in crucial building facilities such as hospitals, telecommunications etc. as well as the protection of the critical equipment that is accommodated by those buildings. (a)barrier rail damage (Northridge earthquake 1994) (b)Connector collapse (Northridge earthquake 1994) In seismically active areas the phenomenon of pounding may need to be accounted for, in the case of closely spaced structures to avoid extensive damages and human losses. The phenomenon of that impact force-pounding has been noted by earthquake investigators over the past several decades when the presence of pounding occurred into an extent. Looking throughout the time, some historical performance of pounding has been denoted, different investigations of past and recent earthquakes damage have illustrated several cases of pounding damage such as those that have occurred in the Imperial Valley (May 18, 1940), California (1994) the Northridge earthquake, Kobe, Japan (1995) and etc. in both engineered structures, buildings and bridges. One of the most remarkable example of pounding-involved destruction resulted from interactions between the Olive View Hospital main building and one of its independently standing stairway towers during the San Fernando earthquake of 1971. The extent of po unding was recently observed in Mexico City in 1985, which then it follows the most recent one in Central Western India (2001). Considerable pounding was observed at sites over 90 km from the epicentre thus indicating the possible catastrophic damage that may occur during future earthquakes having closer epicentres. Is remarkable to denote that pounding of adjacent buildings could have defective damage such as adjacent structures with different dynamic characteristics which vibrate out of phase and there is inadequate separation gap or energy diffusion system to board the relative moderate motions of adjacent buildings. (a)Collapse of a department store building (Northridge earthquake 1994) (b)Collapse of the first story of a wooden residential building (Northridge earthquake 1994) Several researchers considered the topic of pounding between adjacent buildings (Anagnostopoulos 1988; Maison Kasai, 1990; Papadramakis et al, 1996) with proving or deriving mathematical expression in order to evaluate and calculate the pounding force, by using experimental procedures. But few people have actually addressed the topic of pounding between adjacent buildings (Tsai, 1997; Malhotra, 1997; Matsagar Jangid, 2003; Komodromos et al 2007) for which the behaviour and the requirements differ from the conventional structures. Likewise, those projects are limited especially to the study and investigation of pounding between adjacent buildings and based isolated buildings without investigating the case of conflict with neighbouring buildings and the resulting of great deformations of the superstructure. In the past engineers couldnt prevent the pounding due to some factors such as the past seismic codes did not give explicit guidance, because of this and due to particular economical factors and considerations, that are concerning the maximum land usage requirements, especially in the high density populated areas of cities pounding was unavoidable. Due to that, we are able to identify and investigate many buildings in global system which are already been built in contact or overmuch close to another that could easily cause them to suffer from pounding damage in future earthquake strikes. A large rupture is controvertible from both aspects. The overcrowded construction system in many cities complements a dominant apprehension for seismic pounding damage. For these major reasons, it has been comprehensively acquired that pounding is a disastrous phenomenon that should be anticipated or mitigated. Acceleration range will guidance in many cases to quake activities which are appreciably h igher than designed by the design codes that have been used up to now. The most affordable and easy active way for mitigating pounding effects and diminishing pounding damage, is to consider enough separation gap size between close adjacent structures, this causing difficulties to be accomplished, owing to the detailing engineered work that supposed to be done and the high cost of land in this present time. A flipside to the seismic separation gap precaution in the construction design is to reduce the effect or pounding force through devaluating lateral motion, some researchers involved in extent with lateral ground motions due to pounding such as (Kasaiet al. 1996, Abdullah et a.2001, Jankowski et al 2000, Ruangrassamee Kawashima 2003, Kawashima Shoji 2000). This procedure can be accomplished by joining adjacent structures at critical locations of the supports so that their motion could be in-phase with one another or by lessening the pounding buildings damping capacity by means of passive structural control of energy dissipation system. 1.2 Pounding force and impact element Various impact elements are usually used to illustrate the pounding between adjoining construction buildings or bridge structures. Pounding between two conflicting structures, is often simulates by using contact force-based impact models such as the linear spring, Kelvin-Voigt element and Hertz contact model element, and additionally the restitution momentum-based stereo mechanical method. (a) (b) (c) Figure 1.2.1 shows the pounding problem in: (a) bridge structures [1] S. Mithikimar and R. DesRoches 2006; (b) adjacent buildings with link elements [2] V. Annasaheb Matsagar and R. Shyam Jangid 2005; (c) adjacent building with gap size structures [1] S. Mithikimar and R. DesRoches 2006; Also another view of pounding effect beyond that in buildings is on the bridges. Many damages during strong earthquakes have occurred in bridge due to pounding between the girders when the gap is not sufficient. From many experimental studies that have been made showed that pounding damage of a bridge can have severe after-effects as it has been observed in many major earthquakes, such as the 1994 Northridge earthquake etc. As we can see from our daily routine bridges belong to one of the important lifeline systems, their proper function play major role in both our life and in the culture, especially after a devastating earthquake in order to survive and/or recovery. According to some studies [3] Chouw and Hao (2003) and [4] Hai SUI et al. (2004) showed that gap size in the bridges plays the major key role for a bridge to survive under a pounding impact force. The examined the gap size and the outcomes showed that a smaller gap size can expect larger pounding force; therefore the possibility of damage of bridge decks is higher. So on in general designs a small gap should be avoided, if is possible. Moreover according to their experiment the results showed that friction device can decrease pounding impact force that works in different earthquakes. a) Multiple-pier bridge model [4] H. SU, et al 2004; b) Two Single degree of freedom model [4] H. SU, et al 2004; An adequate gap size can contribute to the reduction of pounding effect, but nevertheless in real life the gap size for the designs is unavoidable and due to the limited space that we have to build the design the gap size end up to has smaller values. And thus we resort to other solutions in order to reduce the pounding effect, such as the friction device and bumpers (steel spring with viscous damper). Moreover friction device is much more practical and effective than bumpers. Bumpers can avoid the immediate damage but they cannot reduce the pounding force between the bridge girders, in the other hand friction device can be applied to any earthquake and also is less sensitive to various ground movements. Linear spring element The linear spring element is the easiest and simplest contact element that used to model impact. When the gap between the adjoining structures adjournments, the spring take effect and is presentational of the force established in the meanwhile of impact force. According to Maison Kasai [5] (1992) have used this model widely, to study further analyse pounding between adjacent buildings. Nonetheless, the linear spring cannot resolve the energy dissipation during impact. The linear spring element illustrated in Figure 1.2.3(a). The Kelvin-Voigt Element The Kelvin-Voigt element can be described by a linear spring in parallel with a damper, as depicted in Figure 1.2.3(b), this model has been used in some studies [6] Anagnostopoulos, 1988; [7] Anagnostopoulos and Spiliopoulos, 1992; [8] Jankowski 2005; The linear spring illustrates the force during impact and the damper accounts for the energy dissipation during impact and is mostly used. The damping coefficient (ck) can be related to the coefficient of restitution (e), by equating the energy dissipations during impact, following the form of equations below: Where, and Kk is the stiffness of the contact spring, and m1, m2 are the masses of the colliding bodies. Hertz contact law Additionally, a non linear spring based on Hertz contact law can be used to model impact, as depicted in Figure 1.2.3(c). Nonetheless, the Hertz contact law is a characteristic representing of the static contact between elastic bodies and fails to contain energy loss during impact. The impact force can be expressed in the form of the equation below: Where R is the impact stiffness parameter that depends on the material properties of the colliding structures and the contact surface geometry, g is the at-rest separation and n is the Hertz coefficient. The use of the Hertz contact law has an intuitive appeal in modelling pounding, since one would expect the contact area between the colliding structures to increase as the contact force increases, leading to a non-linear stiffness described by the Hertz coefficient n which typically is taken ad 1.5. Several analysts have adopted this approach, including [9] Davis 1992; [10] Pantelides and Ma 1998; [11] Chau and Wei 2001; and [3] Chau et al. 2003; More, for pounding simulation we can also meet the Hertzdamp model, which is a contact model based on the Hertz contact law and using a non linear hysteresis damper. According to experimental theories, for low peak ground acceleration levels, Hertz model produces sufficing results and the Hertzdamp model can be used in advance for moderate and high peak ground acceleration levels (PGA). The contact element approach has its limitations, with the exact value of spring stiffness to be used, being unclear. Uncertainty in the impact stiffness arises from the unknown geometry of the impact surfaces, uncertain material properties under loading and variable impact velocities. The contact spring stiffness is typically taken as the in plane axial stiffness of the colliding structure (Maison and Kasai, 1990). Another reasonable estimate is twenty times the stiffness of the stiffer structure [6] Anagnostopoulos, 1988; However, using a very stiff spring can lead to numerical convergence difficulties and unrealistically high impact forces. The solution difficulties arise from the large changes in stiffness upon impact or contact loss, thus resulting in large unbalanced forces affecting the stability of the assembled equations of motion. (a) Linear spring element (b) Kelvin Voigt Element (c) Hertz non-linear spring element Figure 1.2.3: Various impact models and their contact force relations [12] Thomas G.Mezger 2006; 1.3 Method of Seismic Analysis 1.3.1 Non-linear Dynamic Analysis Non-linear Dynamic analysis involves step-by step in time integration of the non-linear governing equations of motion, a powerful analysis that can evaluate any given seismic event motion. An earthquake accelerogram is correlated and the consistent response-history of a structural model during seismic events is evaluated. Computer softwares have been designed for these kinds of purposes. Sap can utilized a non-linear dynamic analysis for both linear elastic and non-linear inelastic material response, using step by step integration methods. Is a suitable computer program that is able to evaluate and analyze the response of a two-dimensional and a three-dimensional non-linear structure taking as an input the accelerogram component of an Earthquake? This program will be used to analyse our structural model and to produce a real time of time-history displacement. In a nonlinear dynamic procedure the building model followed static procedures incorporating directly the inelastic material r esponse using in general finite elements. Because this program is using step-by step integration method of analysis the response of the structure, is one of the most sophisticated analysis procedure for predicting forces and displacements under seismic input. However, the calculated response can be very sensitive to the characteristics of the individual ground motion used as seismic input; therefore several time-history analyses are required using different ground motion records. The main value of nonlinear dynamic procedures has the objective to simulate the behaviour of a building structure in detail. 1.4 Main Objectives of this project The main focus of this project is the development of an analytical model that pounding force will present based on the classical impact theory by using parametric study to identify the most important parameters that affecting pounding. Those factors that give arise to that impact force, therefore investigate of the different practical types of structures that pounding can be occurred. The main objective and scope of this study are, to explore the global response of buildings structures when the pounding effects take place under seismic events, therefore to review the main outcomes of the literature and how the impact theory come across to the practical cases. Create a structural modelling and perform a non linear time history analysis on it. Examine the realistic model of pounding that we will create if it satisfies the properties in order for the structure to work. Determine the relative importance of the dynamic characteristics of pounding. Dynamic analysis will be carried out on the model structure to observe the displacement of the structure due to earthquake excitation. When we examine the main structure we are mainly concerned with displacement, velocity and acceleration, the general dynamic behaviour of the structure under the action of dynamic loads such as earthquake lateral loads. For the purpose of the project appropriate computer software will be used for its purposes (e.g. SAP2000). Creation and versatile of the model, accomplishment of the analysis, and checking and breakthrough of the design must be all done through this interface. Graphical displays of the results, including the real-time of time-history displacements will be easily produced by the use of that software. At the end of that modelling analysis by gathering all the necessary and useful outcomes and explored in deep the main parameters derived by this, the conclusion and results of what we have to adopt as engineering before retrofitting a structure. The appropriate structural parameters are the separation gap size between adjacent structures (storey mass, structural stiffness and yield strength etc.), the dynamic behaviour of a damped multi-degree of freedom bridge system separated by an expansion joint, considering the limited width of clearance around a seismically isolated buildings, that pounding can cause high over stresses when the colliding buildings have different height, periods or masses and the isolators in bridge structures are effective in mitigating the induced seismic forces, cable restrainers etc. Engineers should adopt those realistic facts before they construct new structures in order to succeed future sustainability of the structures and avoiding by this the impact phenomenon of pounding. Accomplish to mitigate the phenomenon of pounding in order to prevent future collisions and/or engineering disasters when seismic events occur. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 2.1 Practical Cases Pounding-impact force generated by earthquakes between different analytical structure models may provoke extensive damage and in general most of the times the result of that force is not pleasant, it may lead the structure to a total collision as it can be seen from different practical cases. Pounding problem is phenomenon that has been observed during earthquakes and in accordance to ground motions, and has been extensively investigated by various researchers that have used a variety of impact analytical models. Because of the importance of what pounding will have as a result of different engineering structures, attracted the attention of several scientists and analyzers? This absorption is a consequence fact of a plenty growing amount of evidence, which can be found in reports and journals, which have been created after dominant exceeding earthquakes. Demonstrating, the power of that certain impact force which may cause considerable damage. The conclusions and results of successive series of various numerical, integrated analytical and experimental studies have been conducted using individual structural models and administering different models of practical cases confirm that pounding, due to constraining additional impact forces, may result in damage as well as significantly increase the structural response. Moreover, there are many practical case histories of engineered buildings with different dynamic properties and characteristics, which have been constructed under the old earthquake resistant design codes. Analogous conditions concern also bridge constructions. When a structure is under earthquake vibrations will move according to ground motions. These vibrations can be entirely exaggerated, creating at the same time stresses and deformations throughout the structure. Evaluation of methods can be carry out in engineering practise to estimate the parameters that give a rise to pounding. The accuracy and the ability of computational appliance have increased a lot this century by helping us evaluate the seismic structural response of structure, a variety of softwares computing programs have been designed for those purposes, and can accomplished to calculate the dynamic seismic response of a structure which help engineers mitigate pounding effects in structure by avoiding future disaster s . Linear and nonlinear models are realistic pounding models that have been used for studying the performance of a structural system under the mode of structural pounding effect under seismic events. Significance to notice in seismically active areas the serious hazard that pounding can cause and in what practical cases does it occurs by review of some critical and enlightened journals and reports, according to history performance of an exceeding major earthquakes. Also a time history analysis is a dynamic tool for the investigation of a structural seismic enforcement. Because of all the above reasons, investigations have been carried out on pounding mitigation in order to improve the seismic response. 2.1.1 Linear and non-linear pounding of structural systems Pantellides and Ma [13] examined by experimental procedures, the dynamic response of a damped single degree-of-freedom structural model during a seismic event. They analysed the structural behaviour of SDF with both elastic and inelastic structural impact response by using realistic parameters for the pounding model in numerical calculations of the earthquake response. The method of analysis that they used can be used to examine pounding in both buildings and bridges. In order to accomplished to evaluate the effects that concerning pounding force during earthquake in structures, they made a comparison between linear and non-linear models. In the non-linear pounding model they produced results that showed the one-sided pounding model produces more dangerous effects than the two-sided. In their analysis they derived a mathematical equation that concerns the impact force effects in order to represent pounding model for both elastic and inelastic structures. A realistic pounding element was used for this studying and numerical simulations have demonstrated that pounding impact behaviour is not responsive to the values of the stiffness parameter. Furthermore, their experimental results for both elastic and inelastic structures in order to balance damping levels have showed that the higher deformation occurred in the elastic model. According to some observations that have been made the values of pounding force is relatively small in the inelastic structures in comparison to the elastic structures. The value codes of moderate the damping levels are controlled as compared to the actual seismic separation gap size found through the analysis of SDF structural model. The value of seismic gap is decreased considerably as the damping capacity of the pounding structural model is increased. Jankowski [14], addressed to an extent of a non-linear modelling due of earthquake that generated pounding of structural buildings, by deriving the essential fundamental mathematical expressions, involving the function and the applications of the non-linear analysis. By analysing various earthquake records, he derived appropriate mathematical expressions showing the limitation and the feasibility of a non-linear model, in anticipating values for a seismic pounding gap size as well as values for mass, elastic stiffness and damping coefficients between buildings. In his analysis of two inadequately separated buildings with different dynamic characteristics, modelled by elastoplastic multi-degree-of-freedom lumped mass models are used to simulate the functioning structural behaviour and non-linear viscoelastic impact specificity elements are applied to a model collision. The results of the study demonstrate that pounding has an indicative impact on the behaviour of structural buildings, and furthermore the results that he derived confirm the performance of the non-linear, viscoelastic model which endures to simulate the pounding phenomenon more accurately. 2.1.2 Seismic Pounding Effects between adjacent buildings In these last decades, the pounding phenomenon between closely spaced building structures can be a serious hazard especially in seismically active areas with strong ground motion. Because of that critical fact a beneficial awareness of pounding response on engineer structures and numerical formulas for calculating building separation gap size based on linear or analogous linear methods have been introduced. Abdel Raheem [14] established and achieved a tool for the inelastic analysis of seismic pounding effect between buildings. He carried out a parametric study on buildings pounding response as well as proper seismic hazard mitigation practice for adjacent buildings. Three categories of recorded earthquake excitation were used for input. He studied the effect of impact using linear and nonlinear contact force model for different separation distances and compared with nominal model without pounding consideration. Therefore the results of these studies lean on the stimulation characteristics and the relationship between the buildings fundamental period. Furthermore because pounding produces acceleration and shear in various story levels that are greater than those from the no pounding case. Westermo [16] suggested, in order improving the earthquake response of structures without adequate in-between space of the structures, to linking buildings by beams, which can carry the forces between the structures and thus annihilating collisions. Anagnostopoulos [6] analysed the effect of pounding for buildings under strong ground motions by a simplified single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) model. Miller and Fatemi [17] explored in to an extent the phenomenon of pounding-impact force, of adjacent buildings subjected to harmonic motions by the vibroimpact concept. Maison and Kasai [18] modelled the buildings as multiple-degree-of-freedom systems and analysed the response of structural pounding with different types of idealizations. Papadrakakis et al. [19] studied the pounding response of two or more close separated buildings based on the Lagrange multiplier approach by which the geometric compatibility conditions due to proximity are constrained. A three-dimensional model developed for the simulation of the pounding behaviour of adjacent buildings is presented by Papadrakakis et al. [20]. In the evaluation of building separation, Jeng et al. [18] estimated the minimum separation distance required to avoid pounding of adjacent buildings by the spectral difference (SPD) method. Kasai et al. [4] extended Jengs results and proposed a simplified rule to predict the inelastic vibration phase of buildings based on the numerical results of dynamic time-history analyses. Anagnostopoulos and Spiliopoulos [7] examined the behaviour of common pounding between adjacent buildings in city blocks to several strong earthquakes. In the study, the buildings were idealized as lumped-mass, shear beam type, multi-degree-of-freedom (MDOF) systems with bilinear force deformation characteristics and with bases supported on translational and rocking spring dashpots. Collisions between adjacent masses can occur at any level and are simulated by means of viscoelastic impact elements. They used five real earthquake motions to study the effects of the following factors: building configuration and relative size, seismic separation distance and impact element properties. It was found that pounding can cause high over stresses, mainly when the colliding buildings have significantly different heights, periods or masses. They suggest a possibility for introducing a set of conditions into the codes, combined with some special measures, as an alternative to the seismic separati on requirement. Figure 2.1.2-2 on the left there is a finite element mathematical model and on the right shows the elevation view of a 2 different height building with the separation gap size [14] Abdel Raheem 2006; 2.1.3 SEISMIC POUNDING EFFECT AND RESTRAINERS ON SEISMIC RESPONCE OF MULTIPLE-FRAME BRIDGES DesRoches and Muthukumar [22] used analytical illustrations to check out, the factors and the parameters affecting the worldwide reaction and behaviour of a multiple-frame bridge as a result of pounding of adjacent frames. They have conducted parameter studies of one-sided and two-sided pounding, to dispose the effects of frame stiffness ratio, ground motion characteristics, frame yielding, and restrainers on the pounding behaviour of bridge frames. They showed that the addition of restrainers has a minor effect on the one-sided pounding response of highly out-of-phase frames. It is determined that the most important parameters are the frame period ratio and the characteristic period of the ground motion. The current study explores the effect that pounding impact-force and restrainers have on the worldwide appeal of bridge frames in a multi-frame bridge. They used investigations of two-sided pounding using MDOF models, which showed a favourable post impact response for the flexible f rame and a detrimental effect for the stiff frame demand, for all period ratios. The results from both one-sided and two-sided impact reveal that the response of bridge frames due to pounding, irrespective of the ground motion period ratio, thus validating the recommendations suggested by Caltrans. Current recommendations by Caltrans for limitations in frame period ratios to reduce the effects of pounding are evaluated through an example case. The effect of restrainers on the pounding response of bridge frames is evaluated. The results show that restrainers have very little effect on the demands on bridge frames compared with pounding. 2.1.4 GIRDER POUNDING ON BRIDGES Hao and Chouw [23] introduced a new design principle for anticipating Effect of Structural Pounding During Seismic Events Effect of Structural Pounding During Seismic Events Abstract This project entitled aims at the investigation of the effect of structural pounding to the dynamic response of structures subject to strong ground motions. In many cases structural pounding during earthquake may result in considerable and incalculable damages. It usually need to be accounted for in the case of adjacent structures, bridges, base isolated buildings, industrial and port facilities, and in ground pipelines. The phenomenon of that impact force pounding has been noted by researchers and engineers over the past several decades. As we see through dull historical strokes and performance, in different investigations of past and recent earthquakes damage have illustrated several cases of pounding damage such as those that have occurred in the Imperial Valley (May 18, 1940), the Sequenay earthquake in Canada (1988), Kasai Maison (1991), the Cairo earthquake (1992), the Northridge earthquake (1994), California (1994), Kobe, Japan (1995) Turkey (1999), Taiwan (1999) and Bhuj, Ce ntral Western India (2001). Some of the most memorable seismic events were in the 1972 Managua earthquake, when the five-storey Grant Hotel suffered a complete collapse, also in the 1964 Alaska earthquake, the 14-storey Anchorage Westwood hotel pounded against its low rise ballroom and the most recently extent of pounding in Mexico City in 1985 confirmed this as a major problem. Those all evidences have continued to illustrate the annihilation of earthquakes, with devastation of engineered in both buildings and bridges structures. Amongst the feasible structural destructions, seismic produced pounding has been frequently distinguished in numerous earthquakes, as a result this phenomenon plays a key role to the structures. As engineers, we have a responsibility to prevent it or take the necessary steps to mitigate it for the future constructions by considering the properties that affect and led pounding to occur. In order to examine the effect of the various parameters associated wit h pounding forces on the dynamic response of a seismically excited structure, a number of simulations and parametric studies have been performed, using SAP2000. By more precise investigations that have been done from professional earthquake investigators and engineers pounding produces acceleration and shear at various story levels. Also, significantly depends on the gap size between superstructure segments, which we will examine later on in the project. The main aim of the project is to conduct a detailed investigation on pounding-involved response structure during a seismic event as well as observed the structural behaviour as the result of ground motion excitation by examine the properties that affect pounding and determine the solutions and the mitigations that we have to take into account before we construct a structure in order to avoid future disasters. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Seismic Pounding effect (Overview) Looking throughout the time, investigations and observations of the effects of historical earthquakes have demonstrated that many structures are susceptible to significant damage which may lead to collapse. Numerous devastating earthquakes have hit various seismically active regions. Some investigations that have been followed after those seismic events are distinguished fact providing that, an earthquake within the range of six is capable of creating and generating incalculable and irreversible damages, of both buildings and bridges. Those seismic losses have further consequences, most likely to present economical problem to the community hit. The main target of most seismic excitations are, the primary frequencies of rigid buildings between the ranges of low to medium height, resulting by this in significant accumulations of soil acceleration. Also, addition to this is the causing the presence of the inevitable enduring seismic loads in engineered structures, creating inflexible re sponses. In recent years it becomes more urgent need to minimize seismic damage not only to avoid structures failures but especially in crucial building facilities such as hospitals, telecommunications etc. as well as the protection of the critical equipment that is accommodated by those buildings. (a)barrier rail damage (Northridge earthquake 1994) (b)Connector collapse (Northridge earthquake 1994) In seismically active areas the phenomenon of pounding may need to be accounted for, in the case of closely spaced structures to avoid extensive damages and human losses. The phenomenon of that impact force-pounding has been noted by earthquake investigators over the past several decades when the presence of pounding occurred into an extent. Looking throughout the time, some historical performance of pounding has been denoted, different investigations of past and recent earthquakes damage have illustrated several cases of pounding damage such as those that have occurred in the Imperial Valley (May 18, 1940), California (1994) the Northridge earthquake, Kobe, Japan (1995) and etc. in both engineered structures, buildings and bridges. One of the most remarkable example of pounding-involved destruction resulted from interactions between the Olive View Hospital main building and one of its independently standing stairway towers during the San Fernando earthquake of 1971. The extent of po unding was recently observed in Mexico City in 1985, which then it follows the most recent one in Central Western India (2001). Considerable pounding was observed at sites over 90 km from the epicentre thus indicating the possible catastrophic damage that may occur during future earthquakes having closer epicentres. Is remarkable to denote that pounding of adjacent buildings could have defective damage such as adjacent structures with different dynamic characteristics which vibrate out of phase and there is inadequate separation gap or energy diffusion system to board the relative moderate motions of adjacent buildings. (a)Collapse of a department store building (Northridge earthquake 1994) (b)Collapse of the first story of a wooden residential building (Northridge earthquake 1994) Several researchers considered the topic of pounding between adjacent buildings (Anagnostopoulos 1988; Maison Kasai, 1990; Papadramakis et al, 1996) with proving or deriving mathematical expression in order to evaluate and calculate the pounding force, by using experimental procedures. But few people have actually addressed the topic of pounding between adjacent buildings (Tsai, 1997; Malhotra, 1997; Matsagar Jangid, 2003; Komodromos et al 2007) for which the behaviour and the requirements differ from the conventional structures. Likewise, those projects are limited especially to the study and investigation of pounding between adjacent buildings and based isolated buildings without investigating the case of conflict with neighbouring buildings and the resulting of great deformations of the superstructure. In the past engineers couldnt prevent the pounding due to some factors such as the past seismic codes did not give explicit guidance, because of this and due to particular economical factors and considerations, that are concerning the maximum land usage requirements, especially in the high density populated areas of cities pounding was unavoidable. Due to that, we are able to identify and investigate many buildings in global system which are already been built in contact or overmuch close to another that could easily cause them to suffer from pounding damage in future earthquake strikes. A large rupture is controvertible from both aspects. The overcrowded construction system in many cities complements a dominant apprehension for seismic pounding damage. For these major reasons, it has been comprehensively acquired that pounding is a disastrous phenomenon that should be anticipated or mitigated. Acceleration range will guidance in many cases to quake activities which are appreciably h igher than designed by the design codes that have been used up to now. The most affordable and easy active way for mitigating pounding effects and diminishing pounding damage, is to consider enough separation gap size between close adjacent structures, this causing difficulties to be accomplished, owing to the detailing engineered work that supposed to be done and the high cost of land in this present time. A flipside to the seismic separation gap precaution in the construction design is to reduce the effect or pounding force through devaluating lateral motion, some researchers involved in extent with lateral ground motions due to pounding such as (Kasaiet al. 1996, Abdullah et a.2001, Jankowski et al 2000, Ruangrassamee Kawashima 2003, Kawashima Shoji 2000). This procedure can be accomplished by joining adjacent structures at critical locations of the supports so that their motion could be in-phase with one another or by lessening the pounding buildings damping capacity by means of passive structural control of energy dissipation system. 1.2 Pounding force and impact element Various impact elements are usually used to illustrate the pounding between adjoining construction buildings or bridge structures. Pounding between two conflicting structures, is often simulates by using contact force-based impact models such as the linear spring, Kelvin-Voigt element and Hertz contact model element, and additionally the restitution momentum-based stereo mechanical method. (a) (b) (c) Figure 1.2.1 shows the pounding problem in: (a) bridge structures [1] S. Mithikimar and R. DesRoches 2006; (b) adjacent buildings with link elements [2] V. Annasaheb Matsagar and R. Shyam Jangid 2005; (c) adjacent building with gap size structures [1] S. Mithikimar and R. DesRoches 2006; Also another view of pounding effect beyond that in buildings is on the bridges. Many damages during strong earthquakes have occurred in bridge due to pounding between the girders when the gap is not sufficient. From many experimental studies that have been made showed that pounding damage of a bridge can have severe after-effects as it has been observed in many major earthquakes, such as the 1994 Northridge earthquake etc. As we can see from our daily routine bridges belong to one of the important lifeline systems, their proper function play major role in both our life and in the culture, especially after a devastating earthquake in order to survive and/or recovery. According to some studies [3] Chouw and Hao (2003) and [4] Hai SUI et al. (2004) showed that gap size in the bridges plays the major key role for a bridge to survive under a pounding impact force. The examined the gap size and the outcomes showed that a smaller gap size can expect larger pounding force; therefore the possibility of damage of bridge decks is higher. So on in general designs a small gap should be avoided, if is possible. Moreover according to their experiment the results showed that friction device can decrease pounding impact force that works in different earthquakes. a) Multiple-pier bridge model [4] H. SU, et al 2004; b) Two Single degree of freedom model [4] H. SU, et al 2004; An adequate gap size can contribute to the reduction of pounding effect, but nevertheless in real life the gap size for the designs is unavoidable and due to the limited space that we have to build the design the gap size end up to has smaller values. And thus we resort to other solutions in order to reduce the pounding effect, such as the friction device and bumpers (steel spring with viscous damper). Moreover friction device is much more practical and effective than bumpers. Bumpers can avoid the immediate damage but they cannot reduce the pounding force between the bridge girders, in the other hand friction device can be applied to any earthquake and also is less sensitive to various ground movements. Linear spring element The linear spring element is the easiest and simplest contact element that used to model impact. When the gap between the adjoining structures adjournments, the spring take effect and is presentational of the force established in the meanwhile of impact force. According to Maison Kasai [5] (1992) have used this model widely, to study further analyse pounding between adjacent buildings. Nonetheless, the linear spring cannot resolve the energy dissipation during impact. The linear spring element illustrated in Figure 1.2.3(a). The Kelvin-Voigt Element The Kelvin-Voigt element can be described by a linear spring in parallel with a damper, as depicted in Figure 1.2.3(b), this model has been used in some studies [6] Anagnostopoulos, 1988; [7] Anagnostopoulos and Spiliopoulos, 1992; [8] Jankowski 2005; The linear spring illustrates the force during impact and the damper accounts for the energy dissipation during impact and is mostly used. The damping coefficient (ck) can be related to the coefficient of restitution (e), by equating the energy dissipations during impact, following the form of equations below: Where, and Kk is the stiffness of the contact spring, and m1, m2 are the masses of the colliding bodies. Hertz contact law Additionally, a non linear spring based on Hertz contact law can be used to model impact, as depicted in Figure 1.2.3(c). Nonetheless, the Hertz contact law is a characteristic representing of the static contact between elastic bodies and fails to contain energy loss during impact. The impact force can be expressed in the form of the equation below: Where R is the impact stiffness parameter that depends on the material properties of the colliding structures and the contact surface geometry, g is the at-rest separation and n is the Hertz coefficient. The use of the Hertz contact law has an intuitive appeal in modelling pounding, since one would expect the contact area between the colliding structures to increase as the contact force increases, leading to a non-linear stiffness described by the Hertz coefficient n which typically is taken ad 1.5. Several analysts have adopted this approach, including [9] Davis 1992; [10] Pantelides and Ma 1998; [11] Chau and Wei 2001; and [3] Chau et al. 2003; More, for pounding simulation we can also meet the Hertzdamp model, which is a contact model based on the Hertz contact law and using a non linear hysteresis damper. According to experimental theories, for low peak ground acceleration levels, Hertz model produces sufficing results and the Hertzdamp model can be used in advance for moderate and high peak ground acceleration levels (PGA). The contact element approach has its limitations, with the exact value of spring stiffness to be used, being unclear. Uncertainty in the impact stiffness arises from the unknown geometry of the impact surfaces, uncertain material properties under loading and variable impact velocities. The contact spring stiffness is typically taken as the in plane axial stiffness of the colliding structure (Maison and Kasai, 1990). Another reasonable estimate is twenty times the stiffness of the stiffer structure [6] Anagnostopoulos, 1988; However, using a very stiff spring can lead to numerical convergence difficulties and unrealistically high impact forces. The solution difficulties arise from the large changes in stiffness upon impact or contact loss, thus resulting in large unbalanced forces affecting the stability of the assembled equations of motion. (a) Linear spring element (b) Kelvin Voigt Element (c) Hertz non-linear spring element Figure 1.2.3: Various impact models and their contact force relations [12] Thomas G.Mezger 2006; 1.3 Method of Seismic Analysis 1.3.1 Non-linear Dynamic Analysis Non-linear Dynamic analysis involves step-by step in time integration of the non-linear governing equations of motion, a powerful analysis that can evaluate any given seismic event motion. An earthquake accelerogram is correlated and the consistent response-history of a structural model during seismic events is evaluated. Computer softwares have been designed for these kinds of purposes. Sap can utilized a non-linear dynamic analysis for both linear elastic and non-linear inelastic material response, using step by step integration methods. Is a suitable computer program that is able to evaluate and analyze the response of a two-dimensional and a three-dimensional non-linear structure taking as an input the accelerogram component of an Earthquake? This program will be used to analyse our structural model and to produce a real time of time-history displacement. In a nonlinear dynamic procedure the building model followed static procedures incorporating directly the inelastic material r esponse using in general finite elements. Because this program is using step-by step integration method of analysis the response of the structure, is one of the most sophisticated analysis procedure for predicting forces and displacements under seismic input. However, the calculated response can be very sensitive to the characteristics of the individual ground motion used as seismic input; therefore several time-history analyses are required using different ground motion records. The main value of nonlinear dynamic procedures has the objective to simulate the behaviour of a building structure in detail. 1.4 Main Objectives of this project The main focus of this project is the development of an analytical model that pounding force will present based on the classical impact theory by using parametric study to identify the most important parameters that affecting pounding. Those factors that give arise to that impact force, therefore investigate of the different practical types of structures that pounding can be occurred. The main objective and scope of this study are, to explore the global response of buildings structures when the pounding effects take place under seismic events, therefore to review the main outcomes of the literature and how the impact theory come across to the practical cases. Create a structural modelling and perform a non linear time history analysis on it. Examine the realistic model of pounding that we will create if it satisfies the properties in order for the structure to work. Determine the relative importance of the dynamic characteristics of pounding. Dynamic analysis will be carried out on the model structure to observe the displacement of the structure due to earthquake excitation. When we examine the main structure we are mainly concerned with displacement, velocity and acceleration, the general dynamic behaviour of the structure under the action of dynamic loads such as earthquake lateral loads. For the purpose of the project appropriate computer software will be used for its purposes (e.g. SAP2000). Creation and versatile of the model, accomplishment of the analysis, and checking and breakthrough of the design must be all done through this interface. Graphical displays of the results, including the real-time of time-history displacements will be easily produced by the use of that software. At the end of that modelling analysis by gathering all the necessary and useful outcomes and explored in deep the main parameters derived by this, the conclusion and results of what we have to adopt as engineering before retrofitting a structure. The appropriate structural parameters are the separation gap size between adjacent structures (storey mass, structural stiffness and yield strength etc.), the dynamic behaviour of a damped multi-degree of freedom bridge system separated by an expansion joint, considering the limited width of clearance around a seismically isolated buildings, that pounding can cause high over stresses when the colliding buildings have different height, periods or masses and the isolators in bridge structures are effective in mitigating the induced seismic forces, cable restrainers etc. Engineers should adopt those realistic facts before they construct new structures in order to succeed future sustainability of the structures and avoiding by this the impact phenomenon of pounding. Accomplish to mitigate the phenomenon of pounding in order to prevent future collisions and/or engineering disasters when seismic events occur. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 2.1 Practical Cases Pounding-impact force generated by earthquakes between different analytical structure models may provoke extensive damage and in general most of the times the result of that force is not pleasant, it may lead the structure to a total collision as it can be seen from different practical cases. Pounding problem is phenomenon that has been observed during earthquakes and in accordance to ground motions, and has been extensively investigated by various researchers that have used a variety of impact analytical models. Because of the importance of what pounding will have as a result of different engineering structures, attracted the attention of several scientists and analyzers? This absorption is a consequence fact of a plenty growing amount of evidence, which can be found in reports and journals, which have been created after dominant exceeding earthquakes. Demonstrating, the power of that certain impact force which may cause considerable damage. The conclusions and results of successive series of various numerical, integrated analytical and experimental studies have been conducted using individual structural models and administering different models of practical cases confirm that pounding, due to constraining additional impact forces, may result in damage as well as significantly increase the structural response. Moreover, there are many practical case histories of engineered buildings with different dynamic properties and characteristics, which have been constructed under the old earthquake resistant design codes. Analogous conditions concern also bridge constructions. When a structure is under earthquake vibrations will move according to ground motions. These vibrations can be entirely exaggerated, creating at the same time stresses and deformations throughout the structure. Evaluation of methods can be carry out in engineering practise to estimate the parameters that give a rise to pounding. The accuracy and the ability of computational appliance have increased a lot this century by helping us evaluate the seismic structural response of structure, a variety of softwares computing programs have been designed for those purposes, and can accomplished to calculate the dynamic seismic response of a structure which help engineers mitigate pounding effects in structure by avoiding future disaster s . Linear and nonlinear models are realistic pounding models that have been used for studying the performance of a structural system under the mode of structural pounding effect under seismic events. Significance to notice in seismically active areas the serious hazard that pounding can cause and in what practical cases does it occurs by review of some critical and enlightened journals and reports, according to history performance of an exceeding major earthquakes. Also a time history analysis is a dynamic tool for the investigation of a structural seismic enforcement. Because of all the above reasons, investigations have been carried out on pounding mitigation in order to improve the seismic response. 2.1.1 Linear and non-linear pounding of structural systems Pantellides and Ma [13] examined by experimental procedures, the dynamic response of a damped single degree-of-freedom structural model during a seismic event. They analysed the structural behaviour of SDF with both elastic and inelastic structural impact response by using realistic parameters for the pounding model in numerical calculations of the earthquake response. The method of analysis that they used can be used to examine pounding in both buildings and bridges. In order to accomplished to evaluate the effects that concerning pounding force during earthquake in structures, they made a comparison between linear and non-linear models. In the non-linear pounding model they produced results that showed the one-sided pounding model produces more dangerous effects than the two-sided. In their analysis they derived a mathematical equation that concerns the impact force effects in order to represent pounding model for both elastic and inelastic structures. A realistic pounding element was used for this studying and numerical simulations have demonstrated that pounding impact behaviour is not responsive to the values of the stiffness parameter. Furthermore, their experimental results for both elastic and inelastic structures in order to balance damping levels have showed that the higher deformation occurred in the elastic model. According to some observations that have been made the values of pounding force is relatively small in the inelastic structures in comparison to the elastic structures. The value codes of moderate the damping levels are controlled as compared to the actual seismic separation gap size found through the analysis of SDF structural model. The value of seismic gap is decreased considerably as the damping capacity of the pounding structural model is increased. Jankowski [14], addressed to an extent of a non-linear modelling due of earthquake that generated pounding of structural buildings, by deriving the essential fundamental mathematical expressions, involving the function and the applications of the non-linear analysis. By analysing various earthquake records, he derived appropriate mathematical expressions showing the limitation and the feasibility of a non-linear model, in anticipating values for a seismic pounding gap size as well as values for mass, elastic stiffness and damping coefficients between buildings. In his analysis of two inadequately separated buildings with different dynamic characteristics, modelled by elastoplastic multi-degree-of-freedom lumped mass models are used to simulate the functioning structural behaviour and non-linear viscoelastic impact specificity elements are applied to a model collision. The results of the study demonstrate that pounding has an indicative impact on the behaviour of structural buildings, and furthermore the results that he derived confirm the performance of the non-linear, viscoelastic model which endures to simulate the pounding phenomenon more accurately. 2.1.2 Seismic Pounding Effects between adjacent buildings In these last decades, the pounding phenomenon between closely spaced building structures can be a serious hazard especially in seismically active areas with strong ground motion. Because of that critical fact a beneficial awareness of pounding response on engineer structures and numerical formulas for calculating building separation gap size based on linear or analogous linear methods have been introduced. Abdel Raheem [14] established and achieved a tool for the inelastic analysis of seismic pounding effect between buildings. He carried out a parametric study on buildings pounding response as well as proper seismic hazard mitigation practice for adjacent buildings. Three categories of recorded earthquake excitation were used for input. He studied the effect of impact using linear and nonlinear contact force model for different separation distances and compared with nominal model without pounding consideration. Therefore the results of these studies lean on the stimulation characteristics and the relationship between the buildings fundamental period. Furthermore because pounding produces acceleration and shear in various story levels that are greater than those from the no pounding case. Westermo [16] suggested, in order improving the earthquake response of structures without adequate in-between space of the structures, to linking buildings by beams, which can carry the forces between the structures and thus annihilating collisions. Anagnostopoulos [6] analysed the effect of pounding for buildings under strong ground motions by a simplified single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) model. Miller and Fatemi [17] explored in to an extent the phenomenon of pounding-impact force, of adjacent buildings subjected to harmonic motions by the vibroimpact concept. Maison and Kasai [18] modelled the buildings as multiple-degree-of-freedom systems and analysed the response of structural pounding with different types of idealizations. Papadrakakis et al. [19] studied the pounding response of two or more close separated buildings based on the Lagrange multiplier approach by which the geometric compatibility conditions due to proximity are constrained. A three-dimensional model developed for the simulation of the pounding behaviour of adjacent buildings is presented by Papadrakakis et al. [20]. In the evaluation of building separation, Jeng et al. [18] estimated the minimum separation distance required to avoid pounding of adjacent buildings by the spectral difference (SPD) method. Kasai et al. [4] extended Jengs results and proposed a simplified rule to predict the inelastic vibration phase of buildings based on the numerical results of dynamic time-history analyses. Anagnostopoulos and Spiliopoulos [7] examined the behaviour of common pounding between adjacent buildings in city blocks to several strong earthquakes. In the study, the buildings were idealized as lumped-mass, shear beam type, multi-degree-of-freedom (MDOF) systems with bilinear force deformation characteristics and with bases supported on translational and rocking spring dashpots. Collisions between adjacent masses can occur at any level and are simulated by means of viscoelastic impact elements. They used five real earthquake motions to study the effects of the following factors: building configuration and relative size, seismic separation distance and impact element properties. It was found that pounding can cause high over stresses, mainly when the colliding buildings have significantly different heights, periods or masses. They suggest a possibility for introducing a set of conditions into the codes, combined with some special measures, as an alternative to the seismic separati on requirement. Figure 2.1.2-2 on the left there is a finite element mathematical model and on the right shows the elevation view of a 2 different height building with the separation gap size [14] Abdel Raheem 2006; 2.1.3 SEISMIC POUNDING EFFECT AND RESTRAINERS ON SEISMIC RESPONCE OF MULTIPLE-FRAME BRIDGES DesRoches and Muthukumar [22] used analytical illustrations to check out, the factors and the parameters affecting the worldwide reaction and behaviour of a multiple-frame bridge as a result of pounding of adjacent frames. They have conducted parameter studies of one-sided and two-sided pounding, to dispose the effects of frame stiffness ratio, ground motion characteristics, frame yielding, and restrainers on the pounding behaviour of bridge frames. They showed that the addition of restrainers has a minor effect on the one-sided pounding response of highly out-of-phase frames. It is determined that the most important parameters are the frame period ratio and the characteristic period of the ground motion. The current study explores the effect that pounding impact-force and restrainers have on the worldwide appeal of bridge frames in a multi-frame bridge. They used investigations of two-sided pounding using MDOF models, which showed a favourable post impact response for the flexible f rame and a detrimental effect for the stiff frame demand, for all period ratios. The results from both one-sided and two-sided impact reveal that the response of bridge frames due to pounding, irrespective of the ground motion period ratio, thus validating the recommendations suggested by Caltrans. Current recommendations by Caltrans for limitations in frame period ratios to reduce the effects of pounding are evaluated through an example case. The effect of restrainers on the pounding response of bridge frames is evaluated. The results show that restrainers have very little effect on the demands on bridge frames compared with pounding. 2.1.4 GIRDER POUNDING ON BRIDGES Hao and Chouw [23] introduced a new design principle for anticipating

Tim berners lee :: essays research papers

Tim Berners-Lee graduated from the Queen's College at Oxford University, England, 1976. Whilst there he built his first computer with a soldering iron, TTL gates, an M6800 processor and an old television. He spent two years with Plessey Telecommunications Ltd   (Poole, Dorset, UK) a major UK Telecom equipment manufacturer, working on distributed transaction systems, message relays, and bar code technology. In 1978 Tim left Plessey to join D.G Nash Ltd (Ferndown, Dorset, UK), where he wrote among other things typesetting software for intelligent printers, and a multitasking operating system. A year and a half spent as an independent consultant included a six month stint (Jun-Dec 1980)as consultant software engineer at CERN, the European Particle Physics Laboratory in Geneva, Switzerland. Whilst there, he wrote for his own private use his first program for storing information including using random associations. Named "Enquire", and never published, this program formed the conceptual basis for the future development of the World Wide Web. From 1981 until 1984, Tim worked at John Poole's Image Computer Systems Ltd, with technical design responsibility. Work here included real time control firmware, graphics and communications software, and a generic macro language. In 1984, he took up a fellowship at CERN, to work on distributed real-time systems for scientific data acquisition and system control. Among other things, he worked on FASTBUS system software and designed a heterogeneous remote procedure call system. In 1989, he proposed a global hypertext project, to be known as the World Wide Web. Based on the earlier "Enquire" work, it was designed to allow people to work together by combining their knowledge in a web of hypertext documents. He wrote the first World Wide Web server, "httpd", and the first client, "WorldWideWeb" a what-you-see-is-what-you-get hypertext browser/editor which ran in the NeXTStep environment. This work was started in October 1990, and the program "WorldWideWeb" first made available within CERN in December, and on the Internet at large in the summer of 1991. Through 1991 and 1993, Tim continued working on the design of the Web, coordinating feedback from users across the Internet. His initial specifications of URIs, HTTP and HTML were refined and discussed in larger circles as the Web technology spread. In 1994, Tim founded the World Wide Web Consortium at the Laboratory for Computer Science (LCS) at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Since that time he has served as the Director of the World Wide Web Consortium which coordinates Web development worldwide, with teams at MIT, at INRIA in France, and at Keio University in Japan.

Business Information Systems

Business Information Systems HA(IT) My questions: 1. Define the concept information system and its constitutive elements; describe the broad categories of computer-based information systems, providing relevant business examples for each category identified; explain how computer-based information systems can support managers at each level of an organisation. 2.Explain the main elements and steps of the project management process and, considering your essay writing as a project, provide a concrete description including numbers for that project; relate the main project management steps to the main phases of the systems development life cycle model; how are the life cycle phases handled in the V-model and the spiral model? 3. What is the Information Systems and Information Technology Function in an organization; what needs to be managed; how can the IS/IT function be organized; what does outsourcing mean and which role does it play in this context?Characters (with spaces) and 1 figure: 2 2645 Question 1 Information Systems To understand and define an Information System (IS) thoroughly, it’s important to separate the two words and understand them separately. Information is produced by processing data so that it is meaningful which can be not only understood by the recipient but also used to meet a specific goal or requirement. To understand information, data needs to be understood as well. Data are raw facts like a specific date or measurement. Data needs to be processed and transformed into information; this process is called the transformation process. E. . data regarding sales of a firm is useless unless putting it in the correct context. But if you sort the sales after type of product, you will be able to see what product has been sold the most. By using data to gain relevant information, it’s possible to reduce the uncertainty of different questions and thereby improve the decision making. A system can be found in every part of the world. A system is a set of interrelated components that work together towards a common goal. The solar system might not a have an obvious goal while a firm might have several goals like gaining profit or making the best product possible.To achieve these specific goals the system will need to obtain inputs and transform these into outputs, like described in the transformation process, data is seen as the input and information as the output. But to transform input into output isn’t enough. The output needs to be relevant compared to the objective(s) of the firm. For systems to be more effective the system can contain a feedback and control stage as well. By using the information we have just gathered it’s possible to define IS. IS is defined as the way people and organizations are gathering, storing and processing information.In a business the IS will contribute to making the correct decisions. But IS isn’t solely used for managers and workers’ decision making it can als o be used in other ways, like feedback for an organization’s quality. Computer-based information systems Today most IS involve Information Technology (IT) to create management information also called computer-based information systems. This is because of the many disadvantages it gives not having a computer-based information system. An IS can be divided into two categories called Operations Information Systems (OIS) and Management Information System (MIS).OIS contains 3 sub-systems each contributing in the daily running of a business. The 3 sub-systems of the OIS are: The Transaction Processing System (TPS), Office Automation Systems (OAS) and the Process Control Systems. The TPS is managing the many transactions occurring on daily basis on the operational level of an organization like withdrawal of money from an ATM, or orders and payments for goods and services. Even though the TPS is marked by a lot of repetitive tasks and routine, the function of it is essential and missi on-critical to an organization. A TPS will e. g. secure that an ATM is running correctly.If a person wants to withdraw money from his account via an ATM, the TPS will make sure that there’s enough money on the customer’s account so that the money can be withdrawn. The transaction will only take place if all tasks in the process can be completed. OAS is a common system within the OIS. OAS refers to the way that basic tasks in an office have been computerized. Before creating, storing and managing information was done physically, but by computerizing the office the time taking to create documents or arrange meetings is done faster, giving more time for the organization to take care of other tasks.The OAS helps making the office more than just an area for typing but an area for exchanging important knowledge about the organization by still reducing costs as well. If a manager wants to set up a meeting instead of giving a paper to each participant, he can choose to send an e-mail to all the participants even though they aren’t at the same location. The process control system deals with large amounts of data created by production processes.The process control system is used to control and support the different manufacturing processes of an organization. The process control system will automatically control the flow of the manufacturing process by a specific limit set by the user, and might e. g. support the production of a standard product like the Model T Ford car. The MIS contains three sub-systems. All three systems are supporting decision-making in a business and are called: Decision Support Systems (DSS), Information Reporting Systems (IRS) and the Executive Information Systems(EIS).DSS uses raw data along with different business models to provide useful information for the manager which he can use for making tactical and strategic decisions, being especially semi-structured or unstructured. The DSS is often created by end-users, because t hey often have the much needed knowledge about the organization compared to a bespoke or on-the-shelf package developed by a third party. An example is the expert system which contains the knowledge and decision making skills of specialists, giving none-specialists enough knowledge to make decisions.In the world of medicine, it’s possible for a nurse to enter the symptoms of a patient. The system will then compare the entered symptoms with all the different symptoms of different diseases already stored in a knowledge base and provide a diagnosis. A problem with the DSS is that the more options the system has the more complex it gets. IRS uses information to produce predefined reports for the day-to-day decision-making. There are two commonly known reports used by the IRS being the periodic and exception reports. The periodic reports is required by decision makers at regular intervals, it can e. . provide a report showing the sales of a product from day-to-day. The exception r eport is only being produced when needed; it might be produced automatically if a performance measure moves outside a predefined range. EIS is mostly used for the strategic decision making by senior managers to monitor, compare and analyze and thereby support the decision-making process of the senior manager. EIS could e. g. notify the senior manager with specific information about a facility anywhere in the world underperforming, giving him enough information to make a decision about the future of the facility.The different IS just described are each used at different levels of an organization. The top leaders of an organization are all placed in the strategic level, where unstructured decisions are a big part of the management. They mainly use EIS to support their decisions but it’s important to notice that their decisions tend to rely on their own knowledge and experience as well. At the tactical level of an organization the expert and decision support systems are used to support the semi-structured decisions being made at this level.The operational level of an organization makes a lot of structured decisions because of their little authority; therefore the TPS is used by the workers at this level on a day-to-day basis. The higher up we come in the organization the more unstructured the decisions are because of the level of authority rises. But this isn’t always true; it is possible to make unstructured decisions at the operational level as well as structured decisions at the strategic level. E. g. in a hospital the doctors (who work at the operational level) often have the authority to make important and less structured decisions.Question 2 The project management process There are three key elements of the project management process being time, cost and quality. BIS (Business Information Systems) projects are likely to consume a lot of time and money and involve many parts of the specific organization; the project manager therefore has a big responsibility for the failure or success of a project and whether or not the project is following the time, cost and quality requirements given. The use of a well-structured project management process has the ability to highly reduce the chance of a BIS projects failure.The project management process has four steps being: Estimation, schedule/plan, monitoring and control, documentation. The estimation step gives the project manager time to plan how much time and effort the project will take to fulfill the given requirements. The overall project requirements will be compared to the available resources. In the early stages of the project it’s often hard for the project manager to give precise estimations because of the great amount of uncertainty, but the project will often be constrained by a deadline or the type of people and hardware available.Effort time and elapsed time is two important terms used to explain the amount of work different tasks will take. Effort time explai ns the total amount of work needed to complete a task while the elapsed time indicates how many calendar days the task will take. A project’s estimation will often change a lot from the start and to the end of a project because of the many constraints and changes that can occur. The requirements might change or hardware might break down, but a good estimation is essential to the success or failure of a project.The schedule/planning step is about determining when a project should be executed; the finished schedule is then called the plan. There are two main terms important to notice called the serial and parallel relationship. The serial relationship describes how some activities have to be completed before another activity can start. The parallel relationship explains how some activities can be totally independent, but that four activities might need to run in parallel before an implementation can occur. Monitoring and control is a very important step which ensures that the t asks of a project are meeting the requirements.This is done by monitoring the different tasks; if the project isn’t running as planned and is deviating from the given requirements, controls might need to be made for the project not to fail. To disseminate the information provided during project execution an essential step is documentation. It’s the project manager’s task to make sure that good documentation is provided from the different parts of the project. With poor documentation or without any information at all, the project might not deliver on time and the expenses of maintenance will most likely increase.It’s also important that the documentation provided is acceptable and understandable. My project: To support my project planning a Gantt chart was made to show an overview of the activities. Project startup describes my first day of the project; I chose my questions and estimated the overall process of the project. I wanted to use three days on eac h question, all though I have to use four days on question 2 because of other homework. My writing will compared to my estimation be finished on the 30-okt and I will thereafter be editing the project. The product has to be finished and delivered on the 2-Nov.If the project isn’t delivered on the 2-Nov the project will fail. The different tasks being question 1, 2 and 3 are in this project all independent but I chose to run them in a parallel relationship with the editing task so that before the editing task can occur, the three questions have to be answered. This gives me an overview of the size of my project and whether or not the project has to be shorter. I have been executing the project as planned so far regarding time (today 22-okt), but looking at the size of my project so far, I’m going need more time than estimated on cutting the project in the editing phase.Relation between the project management steps and the SDLC The main phases of the System Development L ife Cycle (SDLC) are by order: Initiation, feasibility study, requirement analysis, system design, build, implement, maintain and kill. The estimation step is used in almost all of the SDLC stages, and will be used more frequently in some stages depending on the type of project. In the initiation stage of the project the project manager will use estimation to make an overview of the project, estimating the different resources that are required to carry out the project, but the estimation isn’t detailed yet.A detailed estimation will be produced when the project has been determined feasible and is under or close to production. The leader will estimate whether or not the project is feasible at the feasibility stage by using the information granted through interviews and reports. In the analysis stage the requirements for the new system will be specified. After the requirements have been established it’s possible to make a detailed estimation of especially the work requir ed at the design and build phase.The estimations will often be much more precise if timings from the previous projects are available. The scheduling and planning step runs alongside the estimation step. By knowing how much time and effort is needed for the project, it’s possible to make a more precise schedule of the process of the project. It’s important to always have a schedule of the plan for the project, but the most effective schedule will be made after the detailed estimation has been produced at the analysis phase (it can be produced at other steps depending on the project).Once the schedule has been produced, the monitoring and control step will monitor the performance at all of the SDLC stages and ensure that the project is following the schedule/plan and fulfilling the requirements. It’s essential to monitor all of the SDLC stages since deviating from the plan can result in a project failure. Documentation is important during the whole project but esp ecially essential at the development and maintenance phases. This is because most projects are based on team efforts.Not only does the documentation allow monitoring and controlling, but it allows the different members of a development team to disseminate their design information between each other, making their work more effective. The V- and spiral model The V-model’s V describes the graphical overview of the relationship between the different tests and SDLC phases, but the V is also a synonym for verification and validation. The verification will check if there is any better solution to the design of the product, and that the design we are building is without errors or bugs.The validation is used to test the design of the product and check whether the design is fulfilling the requirements. Validation and verification forms the basis for producing tests. The tests shown in the V-model are used during implementation which is why the model has the V-shape. But it’s i mportant to notice that the life cycle phases on the left side have to occur, before the tests on the right side of the model can occur. A concern about the V-model is that it has no maintenance phase, meaning that it’s possible to believe that the product is finished and bug-free when signed off.The SDLC can also be used via the spiral model. The spiral model is an iterative system. The three stages of analyzing, design and coding often tend to be repeated as a part of the prototyping process, and this is why the spiral model was made. The spiral model consists of four main activities: Planning, risk analysis, engineering and customer relation. The model contains all of the elements of the SDLC but it also contains risk assessment. By being able to make several iterations it’s possible to make a more detailed production and to add in new elements to the production because of the repetition. Question 3 The IS/IT functionThe goal of using IS/IT is the hope that it will generate more benefit than the costs used on it. The function of IS in an organization, is to make the management process effective and support it. IT is the tools like hardware and software that the organization uses so IS can run and be built. Managing the IS/IT functions When managing IS there are different areas that need to be managed. It’s important to manage the development of the different business systems. When migrating from one system to another it’s important to have a project leader, as well as to manage and make sure that the migration is going as planned.When inventing end-user applications, it’s important to have management to make sure that the software being produced isn’t full of bugs, and isn’t a reinvention. Other important areas that needs to be managed is the database administration, user support and training, shared services and the IS/IT staffing. It’s also important to manage different areas of IT. Some of the areas that need to be managed are which hardware platforms to use in the organization, the manager might choose to only use the client/server environment.Good network architecture is also vital to an organizations sharing of information, and therefore it’s important that this area is managed. Many organizations use a lot of money on IT, and many big organizations have large amounts of IT including development tools. If this area isn’t managed, new tools being bought might not be compatible with the chosen database management systems or the selected hardware platforms. If an organization is using legacy systems, these needs to be managed so that it can still operate with newer systems (this might be an IS area as well).A final important area to manage is the operations management which contains hardware management, capacity planning, security, technical support, telecommunications and network management. Organizing the IS/IT functions To organize the different functions of I S/IT isn’t easy, but an essential part of making IS/IT more effective in a business. It’s possible to ether centralize or decentralize when organizing the IS/IT function in a business. When centralizing, the IS/IT management will be placed in one specific spot in the organization from where all of the functions of IS/IT will be managed.This could for example be the MIS, which will then be reporting to an IT director or another head of the department. Decentralization is the opposite of centralizing and means that the IS/IT functions will be spread out across the organization by having small IS/IT groups stored in different parts of the organization. It’s hard for organizations to be 100 % centralized or decentralized all though many organizations tend to focus on one of them. Outsourcing Outsourcing is a term used when a company chooses to subcontract a service to a third party. This service can be catering, cleaning, public relations and IS.Outsourcing of IS ma nagement has become a major term in many companies in the world today because of its many benefits and uses. Some of these are cost reduction, quality improvement, risk reduction and to enable a focus on the core business. In a 2009 IBM survey of 2500 CIO’s worldwide 76% of the respondents anticipate to have a strongly centralized infrastructure in five years. A highly centralized IS/IT function does as mentioned before contribute to cost reduction, and having the function in one place makes it easier for companies to take advantage of developments like outsourcing.By seeing more companies outsourcing and more companies wanting to centralize which both contribute to a lower cost might not be a coincidence, and can be a way of saying that IT is more than just a support capacity for the outsourcing/centralizing organizations. Outsourcing plays a huge role in the management process as well. The problem with outsourcing and its relationship with the management process is the impo rtance of making outsourcing work. Outsourcing might be a huge trend, but this doesn’t necessarily mean that it’s going to work.Many company’s outsourcing projects tend to fail because of bad management and contracts with the third-party. The failure of many outsourcing projects can have a connection between the management and organizing of the IS/IT functions. If the management and organizing of the IS/IT functions isn’t managed well or if the company isn’t seeing IS/IT as an important part of the company’s strategy, outsourcing has a bigger chance of failing. Litteraturliste * Business Information Systems, fourth edition, Paul Bocij Andrew Greasley Simon Hickie, 2008 * http://www. omputerworld. com/s/article/347073/Swinging_Toward_Centralization (29-10-2011, klokken 13:10) ——————————————– [ 1 ]. Business Information Systems, fourth edit ion, Paul Bocij Andrew Greasley Simon Hickie, 2008 s. 8 [ 2 ]. Business Information Systems, fourth edition, Paul Bocij Andrew Greasley Simon Hickie, 2008 s. 43 [ 3 ]. Business Information Systems, fourth edition, Paul Bocij Andrew Greasley Simon Hickie, 2008 s. 44 [ 4 ]. Business Information Systems, fourth edition, Paul Bocij Andrew Greasley Simon Hickie, 2008 s. 249 [ 5 ].Business Information Systems, fourth edition, Paul Bocij Andrew Greasley, Simon Hickie, 2008 s. 687 [ 6 ]. Business Information Systems, fourth edition, Paul Bocij Andrew Greasley, Simon Hickie, 2008 s. 254 [ 7 ]. Business Information Systems, fourth edition, Paul Bocij Andrew Greasley ,Simon Hickie, 2008 s. 262 [ 8 ]. Business Information Systems, fourth edition, Paul Bocij Andrew Greasley, Simon Hickie, 2008 s. 262 [ 9 ]. Business Information Systems, fourth edition, Paul Bocij Andrew Greasley Simon Hickie, 2008 s. 346 [ 10 ]. Business Information Systems, fourth edition, Paul Bocij Andrew Greasley Simon Hicki e, 2008 s. 351 [ 11 ].Business Information Systems, fourth edition, Paul Bocij Andrew Greasley Simon Hickie, 2008 s. 355 [ 12 ]. Business Information Systems, fourth edition, Paul Bocij Andrew Greasley Simon Hickie, 2008 s. 356 [ 13 ]. Business Information Systems, fourth edition, Paul Bocij Andrew Greasley Simon Hickie, 2008 s. 544 [ 14 ]. Business Information Systems, fourth edition, Paul Bocij Andrew Greasley Simon Hickie, 2008 s. 544 [ 15 ]. Business Information Systems, fourth edition, Paul Bocij Andrew Greasley Simon Hickie, 2008 s. 547 [ 16 ]. http://www. computerworld. com/s/article/347073/Swinging_Toward_Centralization (29-10-2011, klokken 13:10)

Burden Invasive Pneumococcal Disease Health And Social Care Essay

Streptococcus pneumoniae claims 1 million child deceases every twelvemonth worldwide ( 1 ) . Approximately 90 % of deceases occur in developing states. For every 1 kid that dies of pneumonia in a developed state, more than 2000 kids dice of pneumonia in developing states ( 2 ) . The SAARC states overall are in the zone with high incidence of pneumococcal disease ( 1 ) but no survey has attempted to happen out the same. The child mortality rates ( & lt ; 5 ) are high in the part ; runing from 17/1000 for Srilanka to 149/1000 for Afghanistan. Pneumonia claims 11 % of U5 child deceases in India, Maldives, Bangladesh and Pakistan ; 23 % of U5 child deceases in Afghanistan and 19 % in Bhutan with lowest in Srilanka 6 % . ( 3 ) . Pneumonia is the taking cause of U5 decease in Pakistan ( 4 ) but merely 50 % receive antibiotic intervention ( 5 ) . The Million Death Study reported that pneumonia accounted for 27AÂ ·6 % deceases out of entire 12260 deceases in kids from 1-59 months ( 6 ) . S. pneumoniae is one of the major causes of fatal pneumonias in kids ( 7 ) . Besides pneumonia S.pn is besides known to do meningitis which is another fatal status for kids. Many more diseases are to the name of S.pn like ague otitis media, joint gushs and bacteraemia etc. Estimates of pneumococcal disease load are needed so as to use the resources for kid endurance. In Bangladesh, the theoretical account predicts a pneumococcal disease incidence of 3351 instances per 100,000 kids younger than 5 old ages. A population-based, active-surveillance, active-case sensing survey measured an invasive pneumococcal disease rate of 447 instances per 100,000 kids younger than 5 old ages ( 8 ) . Unfortunately the grounds for appraisal of pneumococcal disease in low/middle income states is less. The load of pneumococcal disease is highest in kids and the aged population in both more and less developed states. The intervention of pneumococcal infections is complicated by the world-wide outgrowth of opposition to penicillin and other antibiotics ( 9 ) . The pneumococcal conjugate vaccinums are helpful but the effectivity of these vaccinums is dependent upon the pneumococcal disease load and serotype coverage of the vaccinum. ( 10 )Aim:The primary aims of this systematic reappraisal are To cognize the load of invasive pneumococcal disease. To find the demand for debut of pneumococcal conjugate vaccinum in the immunisation agenda.Methods:We performed a systematic hunt of the published literature and besides tried to get information about the unpublished literature from assorted research workers of the part.Beginnings of Datas:The hunts were current as of January 2013 and we identified articles with information on pneumococcal invasive disease among kids & lt ; 5 old ages of age. We searched 3 Databases: Pubmed, Embase and The Cochrane library. The mention lists of the obtained articles were farther searched for surveies. Non English articles were non included. The hunt inside informations are given in the appendix I. Searching were done by 2 writers ( NJ, HK ) . HK helped in obtaining full text articles.Definitions Used:SAARC states: South Asian Association for Regional Co-Operation includes Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Srilanka and Maldives. Burden of pneumococcal disease: We have defined load of pneumococcal disease as the figure of positive pneumococcal isolates from the suspected population.Pneumonia:Symptoms: cough or hard external respiration, and marks: external respiration & gt ; 50 breaths per minute for infant aged two months to less than one twelvemonth, take a breathing & gt ; 40 per minute for kid aged one to five old ages, and no thorax indrawing, stridor or danger marks. ( 11 )Severe pneumonia:Symptoms: cough or hard eupneic plus any general danger mark or chest indrawing or stridor in a unagitated kid. General danger marks for kids aged two months to five old ages: unable to imbibe or suckle ; pukes everything ; paroxysms ; lethargy or unconscious ( 11 ) . Clinical diagnosing of meningitis is more straightforward than that of pneumonia. The definition of pneumonia is based on the incorporate direction of childhood infections ( IMCI ) attack, which includes other ague lower respiratory tract infections and deficiencies specificity. In add-on, aetiologic diagnosing of bacterial pathogens is easier in CSF than in blood.Meningitis: ( 11 )Suspected: Any individual with sudden oncoming of febrility ( & gt ; 38.5 AÂ °C rectal or & gt ; 38.0 AÂ °C axillary ) and one of the undermentioned marks: cervix stiffness, altered consciousness or other meningeal mark. Probable: A suspected instance with cerebrospinal fluid ( CSF ) scrutiny demoing at least one of the followers: cloudy visual aspect ; leucocytosis ( & gt ; 100 cells/mm3 ) ; leucocytosis ( 10-100 cells/ mm3 ) AND either an elevated protein ( & gt ; 100 mg/dl ) or decreased glucose ( & lt ; 40 mg/dl ) . Confirmed: A instance that is laboratory-confirmed by turning ( i.e. culturing ) or placing ( i.e. by Gram discoloration or antigen sensing methods ) a bacterial pathogen ( Hib, Diplococcus pneumoniae or meningococcus ) in the CSF or from the blood, in a kid with a clinical syndrome consistent with bacterial meningitis ( WHO, 2003 ) . Non Pneumonia Non Meningitis: All infections other than pneumonia and meningitis have been categorized under this header. Invasive Pneumococcal disease: When Diplococcus pneumoniae has been identified from one of the otherwise unfertile sites of the organic structure like blood, CSF, pleural fluid etc either by civilization or by LAT/PCR or other technique. The surveies where the defined instances have some other parametric quantities or if there were some other standards no effort was made to standardise them.Inclusion standards:Surveies ; prospective/retrospective ; with kids & lt ; 5years of age as /or portion of the studied population. Surveies done in infirmary or community scene. Surveies with possible informations available on S.pneumoniae isolated from kids & lt ; 5 old ages of age. Surveies with at least 12 months of surveillance were included in order to get the better of the seasonal nature of pneumococcal diseases. Surveies conducted in SAARC states. The inclusion was decided by 2 writers ( NJ, KK ) and choice appraisal was done by 2 writers ( NJ, KK ) . Discrepancies, if any, were resolved by treatment with 3rd writer ( MS ) and the finding of fact was considered concluding. If the exact information was non available we have contacted the writers and tried to decide the disagreements The surveies which have commented merely on pneumococcal serotypes & A ; /or antibiotic opposition have been excluded from pooled analysis. We excluded instance studies, columns, vaccinum surveies, literature reappraisals and the surveies in which nasopharyngeal aspirates, pharynx swabs or oropharyngeal swabs were the lone samples to find the causative being.Data aggregation and direction:Three writers ( BE ; AK, SS ) abstracted informations individually from the included surveies in a predesigned tabular array that included survey design, puting, no. of suspected instances, no. civilization samples taken & amp ; positive civilizations obtained, and no. positive civilizations for Diplococcus pneumoniae. The information from Hospital based surveies and population based surveies were abstracted individually. To decide the disagreements sing the abstracted informations treatment with the other referees were done and consensus was reached. Sing some losing informations the writers were contacted and if the disagreements were non resolved they were non taken up for pooled analysis. The community based surveies available merely give information about pneumococcal pneumonia instances in the community.Datas analysis:Data analysis was done utilizing CMA V2 by 4 writers ( NJ, MS, KK, and AA ) . The similar surveies were pooled together. Sub group analysis for finding the IPD load in India was done and besides sub-group analysis for finding IPD in kids & lt ; 5 old ages was done. The community based surveies, infirmary based prospective and retrospective surveies have besides been analyzed individually.Consequences:Datas reviewed:We found 700 published articles through electronics and manual searching. After rubric and abstract testing 40 full text articles were retrieved and 21 surveies ( 8, 12-31 ) were included for the reappraisal and 19 were excluded ( 32-50 ) ( fig 1 ) Community based surveies were non available from Afghanistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan & A ; Srilanka. Because the life conditions are about same and there is besides geographic similarity we have considered the surveies from Bangladesh and Pakistan as representative of the SAARC states. Similarly there were no infirmary based surveies from Afghanistan and Bhutan so we have taken the surveies from remainder of the states and generalized them for these states. We have included a sum of 21 surveies for this systematic reappraisal & A ; mentioned in tabular array I. The inclusion was decided by 3 writers ( MS, NJ, KK ) and quality marking was done by 3 writers ( MS, NJ, KK ) . The surveies with mark of 6 or more were considered to be good quality grounds.Hospital Based Prospective Surveies:SAARC states:We identified 15 infirmary based prospective surveies ( 12-19, 22, 24-27, 29, 31 ) from assorted SAARC states and analyzed them for finding the invasive pneumococcal disease load in kids populating in these states and besides did a subgroup analysis for kids less than 5 old ages of age. These surveies show that 3.5 % ( 95 % CI 1.9-6.4 ) of kids admitted to infirmaries with diagnosing of invasive diseases like terrible pneumonia or meningitis or sepsis are due to S. pn ( fig 3 ) . Eight surveies ( 13, 15, 16, 18, 24-27 ) show that 1.5 % ( 95 % CI 0.6-3.4 ) of kids admitted as terrible pneumonia have S. pn as the causative being ( Fig 5 ) . Ten surveies ( 12, 14, 16, 17, 19, 22, 24, 26, 27, 29 ) of the included surveies show that 7.6 % ( 95 % CI 4.1-13.7 ) of kids with likely or confirmed meningitis have S.pn as a causative being ( fig 7 ) . S.pn is one of the major bacteriums doing 20 % ( 95 % CI 12.9-29.9 ) of invasive bacterial diseases ( fig 4 ) . 11 % ( 95 % CI 6.5-17.9 ) of terrible bacterial pneumonia are caused by S.pn ( fig 6 ) . S.pn has been an aetiologic agent in 33.1 % ( 95 % CI 23.1-44.8 ) instances of bacterial meningitis ( fig 8 ) .Children less than 5 old ages of age:Out of the 15 surveies merely 11 surveies ( 13, 15, 17, 18, 22, 24-27, 29, 31 ) have clear information on invasive pneumococcal disease in kids less 5 old ages of age. The surveies show that S.pn causes 2.7 % ( 95 % CI 1.1-6.2 ) hospitalizations due to all invasive disease ; in kids & lt ; 5 old ages of age ( fig 9 ) . Merely 7 surveies ( 13, 15, 18, 24-27 ) had clear information on pneumococcal pneumonia in kids & lt ; 5 old ages of age and showed that 1.5 % ( 95 % CI 0.5-4.3 ) of terrible pneumonias are due to S.pn ( fig 11 ) . Similarly 6 surveies ( 17, 22, 24, 26, 29 ) showed that S.pn is the being responsible for 7.1 % ( 95 % CI 2.6-17.5 ) meningitis instances in the age group ( fig 13 ) . S.pn remains the major bacterial cause of all invasive diseases in kids U5 old ages of age doing 19.2 % ( 95 % CI 11.5-30.3 ) of invasive bacterial diseases ( fig 10 ) . 10.8 % ( 95 % CI 6.4-17.6 ) terrible bacterial pneumonias are due to S.pn ( fig 12 ) and 35.1 % ( 95 % CI 22.1-50.8 ) of pyogenic meningitis is due to S.pn. ( fig 14 ) .Bharat:We found 9 surveies from India ( 12-19, 22 ) which showed that S.pn causes 7.9 % ( 95 % CI 3.8-15.7 ) of invasive diseases in kids ( fig 15 ) . S.pn has been an aetiologic agent in 3.9 % ( 95 % CI 1.2-11.7 ) kids with terrible pneumonia ( fig 17 ) and is besides a major bacterial cause of pneumonia in kids doing 14 % ( 95 % CI 5.8-30.1 ) of bacterial pneumonias ( fig 18 ) . S.pn has been a causative agent in 10.4 % ( 95 % CI 5.8-18.1 ) of kids with meningitis ( fig 19 ) and once more a major bacterial cause of pyogenic meningitis ( fig 20 ) . The hospital prevalence of S.pn in Indian kids is more than that of all other SAARC states.Children les s than 5 old ages of age:Five surveies ( 13, 15, 17, 18, 22 ) gave clear information on pneumococcal diseases in kids under 5 twelvemonth of age in India. The image does non alter in this age group of Indian kids where S.pn is prevailing in 8.2 % ( 95 % CI 4.1-16.6 ) of all hospitalized kids with suspected invasive bacterial disease ( fig 21 ) and S.pn becomes a major bacterial cause of invasive bacterial diseases with 21.2 % ( 95 % CI 9.4-41.0 ) of all invasive bacterial diseases are due to S.pn ( fig22 ) . 5.4 % ( 95 % CI 2-14.1 ) of terrible pneumonias in infirmary wards are due to S. pn ( fig 23 ) & A ; 16.5 % ( 95 % CI 12.8-16.2 ) meningitis in kids less than 5 old ages describing to infirmaries are due to pneumococcus. In 13.6 % ( 95 % CI 5.5-29.8 ) of all bacterial pneumonia ( fig 24 ) & A ; 39.3 % ( 95 % CI 27.5-52.6 ) of pyogenic meningitis ( fig 26 ) S.pn has been isolated and is a major cause of these diseases in India.Hospital Based Retrospective Surveies:Two infirmary b ased retrospective surveies ( 21, 28 ) from India were included in this reappraisal. The pooling of these surveies together showed that 15.5 % ( 95 % CI 0.5-88 ) of invasive pneumococcal disease instances amongst the entire admitted patients with invasive bacterial diseases ( Fig 27 ) . The assurance intervals for this group are broad because one survey ( 21 ) which is merely on bacterial meningitis and has a little sample size with comparatively more proportion of pneumococcal isolates.Population Based Surveies:Four surveies ( 8, 20, 23, 30 ) from the SAARC states were included in the reappraisal. These surveies are from Pakistan and Bangladesh. These surveies merely discuss the kids under 5 old ages of age. These surveies show that approximately 13.4 % ( 95 % CI 6.7-25 ) of all invasive bacterial diseases in community are due to S. pn ( fig 29 )Inference of all the analysis:The consequence from the population based surveies ( 13.4 % ) is comparable to that from the infirmary based prospective surveies ( 19 % ) and besides to those obtained from retrospective surveies ( 15.5 % ) . The pneumococcal disease prevalence in SAARC states varies between 13 % – 19 % of all invasive bacterial diseases.Discussion:Our findings show that S. pn is prevailing in 19 % of all hospitalizations in kids of SAARC states and is hence one of the major cause of concern every bit far as child wellness is concerned. Pooling the Indian surveies we found that pneumococcal diseases are 25 % of all invasive bacterial diseases in kids of India. These figures might be an underestimation of the current state of affairs as the surveies discuss merely hospitalized instances, the milder signifiers may travel unreported. S.pn is a major bacterial cause for terrible pneumonia and besides for pyogenic meningitis in kids of this part. The community based surveies besides show that in 13 % of bacterial instances were due to S.pn but once more these surveies besides discussed the terrible dis eases merely and did non describe the milder signifiers. The consequences of our reappraisal are comparable to other reappraisals ( 1 ) which showed high prevalence of pneumococcal diseases in India. The consequences of community based surveies show that __ % of all bacterial invasive diseases in community are due to pneumococcus which is comparable to the consequence from the infirmary based prospective surveies. An unpublished information from one site of a multicentric test ( ISPOT survey ) from India showed that approx 38 % of kids with terrible pneumonia ( Radiologically confirmed ) had S. pn isolated from the nasopharyngeal aspirates or pharynx swabs. The survey besides showed that unwritten Amoxil administered at place was effectual in handling terrible pneumonia. The No Shots survey from Pakistan ( 51 ) concluded that place intervention with high dose unwritten Amoxil in instances of terrible pneumonia is tantamount to WHO recommendations of hospitalizations and i/v antibiotics. Similarly in another survey from Pakistan showed that local wellness workers were able to handle terrible pneumonia instances at place with high dosage Amoxil ( 52 ) . Survey from Bangladesh ( 53 ) reports the rhinal passenger car rate of 47 % and besides reports the early colonisation in rural population. The survey besides reports that 69 % of invasive strains were immune to cotrimoxazole. The ANSORP survey reported 41 % non-susceptible strains to penincillin in Srilanka and approximately 4 % in India ( 54 ) . The IBIS survey ( 16 ) reported 60 % opposition to chloramphenicol, Principen, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, or Erythrocin ; with 32 % isolates resistant to more than 3 antimicrobic drugs. Kunango et Al ( 55 ) reported that out of 150 clinical isolates from invasive pneumococcal infections, merely 11 ( 7.3 % ) isolates were comparatively immune to penicillin, although 64 were immune to one or more antibiotics particularly cotrimoxazole, Achromycin and Chloromycetin. In the ISCAP test ( 56 ) the opposition form of S. pneumoniae to assorted antibiotics was: cotrimoxazole 66.3 % , chloramphenicol 9.0 % , oxacillin 15.9 % and erythromycin 2.8 % .So the antibiotic opposition becomes another menace. In India, the most common serogroups colonising the nasopharynx of kids are 6, 14, 19, and 15 ( 38, 57 ) . IBIS survey ( 16 ) studies serotype 1,6 and 19 to be the most common serotypes isolated from either blood or CSF samples of the kids with invasive disease. Rijal et Al ( 49 ) found that serotypes 1,5 & A ; 4 were most normally isolated from the patients of IPD and besides reported that 52 % of isolates were immune to cotrimoxazole.Decision:The systematic reappraisal concludes that S. pneumoniae is a major bacterial cause of invasive bacterial diseases in kids of SAARC states. The outgrowth of immune strains of Diplococcus pneumoniae are indicating towards the demand for revisiting the intervention recommendations and besides do a call for explicating preventative steps to decrease the prevalence of invasive pneumococcal diseases. The usage of antibiotic which is less immune and easy to administrate should be considered. Pneumococcal conjugate vaccinum, after cognizing the preval ent serotypes and there coverage, should be considered by the policy shapers. Conflict of Interests: None stated Role of the Funding Agency: The reappraisal was supported and funded by ICMR, New Delhi. The support bureau did non interfere with the reappraisal procedure or the consequences. Recognitions: We would wish to thank Dr. Samir K Saha ( ICDDR, Bangladesh ) , Dr. Z.A. Bhutta & A ; Dr S.Q. Nizami ( AKU, Karachi, Pakistan ) for supplying us with their publications on pneumonia ; we would besides wish to thank Dr. Kay Dickerson of John Hopkins University U.S. for assisting us with the statistical methods.